In the 1790s net output of food grains per rural capita without oats (100 kg) and excluding seeds was approximately 250 kg. This is the amount of grain consumed by peasantry in Russia in 1896-1913. True, in the eighteenth century they did not produce potatoes, the consumption of which in 1896-1913 increased the calorie content of nutrition by 10 per cent; but on other hand the output of meat, dairy produce, vegetables, fish and game was undoubtedly greater. However, in 1896-1913 the average stature of recruits (minimum height standard being lesser) was 168.8 cm and in 1790-1799 – 160.7 (8.1 cm less!) and the average height of the men born in 1896-1915 was 166.6 cm). Why was it so? The point is that in 1790-1799 a peasant had to sell a considerable part of his agricultural produce in order to pay taxes, rent and to buy some goods he needed and did not produce himself. The analysis of tax and rent explicitly shows it (see Table 5 and 6).
Table 5. Changes in the Burden of Taxes and Dues from Seigniorial Serfs in the Eighteenth Century Russia (per Capita)
Years |
Direct Taxes |
Quitrent* |
Total of Taxes and Quitrent |
Corvee*** |
Index of Grain Prices |
Nominal Prices of Rye per pud,**** Kopecks |
||||||||
Ko-pecks |
Index** |
Ko-pecks |
Index** |
Ko-pecks |
Index** |
Desia-tin |
Index |
Nomi-nal |
In Silver |
|||||
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
|||||||||
1700–09 |
27 |
100 |
100 |
40 |
100 |
100 |
67 |
100 |
100 |
0.60 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
4.3 |
1710–19 |
– |
– |
– |
50 |
125 |
69 |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
180 |
149 |
8.3 |
1720–29 |
70 |
259 |
96 |
70 |
175 |
67 |
140 |
209 |
79 |
– |
– |
263 |
218 |
12.6 |
1730–39 |
70 |
259 |
115 |
90 |
225 |
100 |
160 |
239 |
106 |
– |
– |
226 |
190 |
10.9 |
1740–49 |
70 |
259 |
94 |
120 |
300 |
108 |
190 |
284 |
103 |
– |
– |
277 |
233 |
12.3 |
1750–59 |
70 |
259 |
103 |
160 |
400 |
159 |
230 |
343 |
136 |
– |
– |
251 |
208 |
9.4 |
1760–69 |
70 |
259 |
72 |
200 |
500 |
138 |
270 |
403 |
111 |
0.75 |
125 |
362 |
264 |
17.6 |
1770–79 |
70 |
259 |
58 |
350 |
875 |
197 |
420 |
627 |
141 |
1.20 |
200 |
444 |
320 |
20.5 |
1780–89 |
70 |
259 |
37 |
500 |
1250 |
182 |
570 |
851 |
124 |
– |
– |
686 |
420 |
34.1 |
1790–99 |
96 |
356 |
32 |
700 |
1750 |
158 |
796 |
1188 |
107 |
1.50 |
250 |
1110 |
566 |
44.1 |
* In money and kind.
** Index A does not take into account price changes; index B has been deflated to reflect changes in nominal prices.
*** Complete cultivation of a certain number of the desiatins of land per year; the desiatina was equal to 2.7 acres or 1.09 hectares.
**** Pud=16.38 kilograms.
Table 6. Changes in the Burden of Taxes and Dues from State Peasants, Appanage Peasants, Church (from 1764 Economicheskie) Peasants and Burgers in the Eighteenth Century Russia (per Capita)
Years |
State Peasants: Direct Taxes and Quitrent |
Appanage Peasants: Direct Taxes and Quitrent |
Church Peasants: Direct Taxes and Quitrent |
Seigniorial Peasants: Direct Taxes and Quitrent |
Burgers: Direct Taxes and Quitrent |
Height, centi-meters |
||||||||
Ko-pecks |
Index* |
Ko-pecks |
Index* |
Ko-pecks |
Index* |
Index* |
Ko-pecks |
Index |
||||||
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
|||||||
1724–29 |
111 |
100 |
100 |
111 |
100 |
100 |
111 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
120 |
100 |
163.4 |
1730–39 |
110 |
99 |
115 |
110 |
99 |
115 |
110 |
99 |
115 |
114 |
134 |
120 |
100 |
164.5 |
1740–49 |
110 |
99 |
94 |
110 |
99 |
94 |
110 |
99 |
94 |
136 |
130 |
120 |
100 |
164.8 |
1750–59 |
110 |
99 |
104 |
110 |
99 |
104 |
110 |
99 |
104 |
164 |
172 |
120 |
100 |
163.5 |
1760–69 |
174 |
157 |
114 |
126 |
114 |
83 |
203 |
183 |
133 |
264 |
192 |
128 |
115 |
163.4 |
1770–79 |
270 |
243 |
144 |
270 |
243 |
144 |
270 |
243 |
143 |
371 |
222 |
200 |
180 |
163.2 |
1780–89 |
340 |
306 |
117 |
340 |
306 |
117 |
340 |
306 |
117 |
478 |
185 |
200 |
180 |
161.3 |
1790–99 |
388 |
350 |
83 |
388 |
350 |
83 |
388 |
350 |
83 |
604 |
144 |
200 |
180 |
160.7 |
* Index A does not take into account price changes; index B has been deflated to reflect changes in nominal prices.
Table 7. Height by Social Groups in 1700–1799, centimetres
1700–1709 |
Rank |
1700–1759 |
Rank |
1760–1799 |
Rank |
Decrease in stature, cm |
||
1700–1759 |
1760–1799 |
|||||||
State Peasants |
164.2 |
7 |
163.6 |
4 |
161.7 |
7 |
-0.6 |
-1.9 |
Church Peasants |
164.3 |
6 |
163.1 |
7 |
162.4 |
3 |
-1.2 |
-0.7 |
Seigniorial Peasants |
164.7 |
5 |
163.1 |
8 |
161.1 |
5–6 |
-1.6 |
-2 |
Appanage Peasants |
165 |
4 |
163.2 |
5 – 6 |
161.1 |
5–6 |
-1.8 |
-2.1 |
Burgers |
165 |
3 |
164.1 |
2 |
161.8 |
6 |
-0.9 |
-2.3 |
Manor Serfs |
165.2 |
2 |
163.2 |
5 – 6 |
162.1 |
4 |
-2 |
-1.1 |
Clergy |
167 |
1 |
164.1 |
1 |
162.5 |
2 |
-2.9 |
-1.6 |
Non-Russian People of the Volga Region |
– |
– |
163.9 |
3 |
163.3 |
1 |
– |
-0.6 |
Standard Deviation |
0.934 |
0.444 |
0.743 |
The biological status of burgers suffered most of all: their stature in 1760-1799 as comparison with 1700-1759 decreased by 2.3 cm. The stature of appanage (court) peasants (they belonged to the tsar’s family) decreased by 2.1 cm, of landlord peasants – by 2 cm, of state owned peasants by 1.9 cm, of clergy – by 1.6 cm, of manor serfs (house-serf peasants) (they were in landlords’ service) – by 1.1 cm, of church peasants (they were confiscated from the Church in 1764) – by 0.7 cm. The biological status of non-Russian peoples of the Volga region (Tatars, Mordovians, Chuvashes, Bashkirs; the ethnic origin of recruits of other nationalities was not defined in the sources) suffered least of all. By the end of the eighteenth century landlord peasants had the lowest biological status, non-Russian peoples and clergy had the highest one. Now we see that on the scale of stature social groups are arranged in accordance with their position on the scale of payments they paid to the state and their masters. Unfortunately, nobles serving in the Army were never measured. The procedure was thought to be humiliating for their dignity. That is why information on their stature is not available. Undoubtedly they were the tallest people. The stature of their house-serfs indirectly testifies to that. They were among the tallest people in various categories of peasant and by 1 cm higher than other landlord peasants. What made the state raise taxes and landlords increase rent? Years when the tendency for a fall of the biological level of living was replaced by the tendency for its rise are very indicative and suggest an answer to the formulated question. First of all let us note four 5-year periods when a short-term and insignificant rise of the biological status set in: 1725-1729, 1740-1744, 1760-1764, 1775-1779. In my opinion, in three cases it was connected with accession to the throne of a new emperor. Every time it was accompanied by the remission of arrears and temporary weakening of the state machinery pressure on taxable population on the issue of tax payment. And this was substantial concession since annual arrears on direct taxes made up 4-5 per cent of the total amount of payment. The rise of the biological status in 1775-1779 can be linked with the peasant uprising in 1774-1775 which raged over a vast territory for two years and after which the amount of rent was decreased for some time.